Sempai-Kōhai

In Japanese dōjō there are many relationships that come into play.  One such relationship is the sempai (先輩) and kōhai (後輩) relationship.  Understanding the true nature and the cultural underpinnings of this relationship will be beneficial to the student in their quest for knowledge within a traditional dōjō. 

The term sempai (先輩) is a compound word comprised of two characters.  The first character (先) has the Japanese kun reading of saki or mazu with a meaning of 'before' or ‘first;’ and, the Japanese ON pronunciation is sen (Goldsbury, N.D.).  The second character (輩) has the Japanese kun reading of tomogara or yakara  (Goldsbury, N.D.) with a meaning of ‘fellow’ or ‘colleague’ such as ‘a member of a group;’ and, the Japanese ON pronunciation is hai.  When hai is added to sen, hai becomes pai to technically make senpai; however, it is pronounced sempai due to the way the Japanese phoenetic system works (Charalambous, 2015).  In fact, this is not too different in other languages.  The easy way to remember this rule is that n always changes to m in front of P, B, and M (Bragalone, 2015).  The combination of these two characters gives the word the meaning of ‘a member of a group who came before or joined first’ and is therefore considered senior in status.

The term kōhai (後輩) is also a compound word comprised of two characters.  The first character (後) has the Japanese kun reading of nochi, ushiro, ato, or oku(reru) with a meaning of 'after,' 'behind,' 'subsequent,' or 'late' (Goldsbury, N.D.); and, the Japanese ON pronunciation is kō (後, 2015).  The second character is the same as the second character described above in the term sempai.  When combined together these two characters become kōhai with a meaning of ‘a member of a group who came after or joined later’ and is therefore considered junior in status.

In the Japanese culture these relationships have their basis in Confucianism and therefore derive a lot of influence from this connection.  Confucianism describes five relationships: ruler to ruled, father to son, husband to wife, elder brother to younger brother, friend to friend.  These relationships define a hierarchy where one is subordinate to the other; however, implied in this hierarchy is a responsibility of the superordinate to the subordinate.  “Harmony was maintained by a reciprocal relationship of justice between a superior, who was urged to be benevolent, and a subordinate, who was urged to be obedient and to observe propriety” (Confucianism in the Edo (Tokugawa) Period, N.D.). 

This same sense of responsibility shows up in the sempai-kōhai relationship and is known in Japanese as on-giri (恩義理) which cannot be translated directly into English but roughly means duty, debt of gratitude, social obligation, or burden of obligation.  This reciprocal obligation is similar to what we in the West would describe as a mentor-mentee relationship but obviously goes much deeper in Japanese society.  Interestingly, in this relationship many of the rituals that developed are not too different than those you would find in the modern day military organizations or military academies in the West. There is a pragmatic benefit to this relationship.  A sempai usually has more experience than their kōhai and can therefore guide the kōhai.  In fact, as described above there is an obligation for this to happen.  This also frees up the sensei by delegating certain teaching tasks to the sempai of the dōjō.

So now that we know how this relationship is historically defined, how does one become a sempai or kōhai?  Essentially, when you join a dōjō those who are already students are your sempai and those who join after you will become your kōhai. This relationship will remain in place even if you become technically more proficient that someone who began training before you. This holds true even if you surpass your sempai in rank. This is the same for those who begin training after you. They will always be your kōhai, regardless of skill or rank.  Another important point is that the context of this relationship is important. This means that someone can be your sempai in one context but you can be their kōhai in a different context. For example, in the dōjō you may have a sempai who in a different class or social setting may be your kōhai. While this too has its basis in Confucian relationships, it can become quite confusing if you are not cognizant of the context. 

Lastly, how are these terms used?  Both of these terms belong to a group called honorifics which, while not a part of basic Japanese grammar, are essential to becoming proficient in Japanese speech and culture.  Also, it is important to note that these terms are used as suffixes where the term is attached at the end of the family name of the person to which you are referring.  The term sempai is generally used when referring to the person one is talking to or when referring to another person in conversation.  However, you would never use this term to refer to yourself.  In addition, the dropping of an honorific such as sempai when referring to someone “implies a high degree of intimacy and is generally reserved for one’s spouse, younger family members, social inferiors (as in a teacher addressing students in traditional arts), and very close friends” (Honorific Suffixes, 2011).  Unlike the term sempai, kōhai is seldom used as an honorific as it would sound very condescending.  However, it can be used as a descriptor such as when introducing someone who is your junior to a group.

Now that you have a basic understanding of the terms sempai and kōhai, and the relationship that these terms imply, you should have a better understanding of some of the relationships found within the Japanese dōjō.  This knowledge should enable you to operate both outside and inside the dōjō with the proper respect, attitude, and etiquette.  This will enable you to become a valued member of the dōjō.

Bibliography

Bragalone, M. (2015). Is It Senpai or Sempai? – Writing Japanese with Roman Letters. Retrieved 2015, from Nihongo Shark: http://nihongoshark.com/is-it-senpai-or-sempai/

Charalambous, A. (2015). Japanese Honorifics 101. Retrieved 2015, from Japanista: http://japanistas.com/en/archives/43226

Confucianism in the Edo (Tokugawa) Period. (N.D.). Retrieved 2015, from Willamette University: http://www.willamette.edu/~rloftus/neoconfucianism.html

Goldsbury, P. (N.D.). Sensei / Shihan as "Teacher" in Japanese. Retrieved September 26, 2015, from Aikiweb: http://www.aikiweb.com/language/goldsbury1.html

Honorific Suffixes. (2011, October 27). Retrieved 2015, from Japan Reference: http://www.jref.com/articles/honorific-suffixes.24/

後. (2015). Retrieved 2015, from Wiktionary: https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%BE%8C

 

Japanese Language

The Japanese language can be very daunting to the novice; however, a basic understanding can help even the novice appreciate the language.  Like all languages there is the spoken language and the written language.  This article will focus primarily on the written language but it will touch on some basics in pronunciation as it pertains to the written language.  The key points of the Japanese language that will be covered which will help you in your understanding of basic terms and make the language a little less daunting.

The Japanese language uses four different scripts to write the language. There is kanji, hiragana, katakana, and Rōmaji (The Japanese writing system, N.D.). 

Kanji (漢字), which literally means “characters from Han China,” are Chinese characters that have been incorporated and adapted to write Japanese nouns, stems of adjectives and verbs, and Japanese names (Introduction to Kanji, N.D.).  While the exact origins of how Chinese characters came to be used in Japan is debated and the different types of kanji can be quite complex, it is not necessary to delve into either of these areas here.  What is important to understand is that kanji can have several different pronunciations depending on context, meaning, location in the sentence structure, and how it is used in a compound.  Typically these pronunciations, or readings, are grouped into two categories which are called on’yomi (音読み) which literally means “sound reading” (音読み, 2015) or kun’yomi (訓読み) which literally means “meaning reading” (訓読み, 2015).   The on-yomi, often abbreviated as ON, is derived from the pronunciation of the Chinese character when it was imported from China and the kun-yomi, often abbreviated as kun, is the indigenous Japanese reading for the concept that the Chinese character represents (On-yomi and Kun-yomi, N.D.).  Unfortunately, characters can have more than one on’yomi because kanji were brought over from China at different times throughout history.  In addition, since kun’yomi are essentially a translation of a Chinese character, these characters can sometimes have multiple kun’yomi as well.  All of this increases the complexity and difficulty for the novice learner.   Lastly, it is important to remember that on’yomi are typically written in all capital letters and kun’yomi are written in all lowercase letters.

Hiragana (平仮名), which literally means “smooth kana,” (平仮名, 2015) is a syllabary that is used to write inflectional endings for adjectives and verbs, grammatical particles, words with no kanji equivalent (or perhaps unknown), to indicate how to read kanji, or to make reading easier.  When used to write inflectional endings hiragana are called okurigana (送り仮名) which means “accompanying letter” (Okurigana , N.D.); and, when it is used to give the pronunciation of kanji it is called furigana (振り仮名)which means “to assign a character” (Hiragana, N.D.) (振り仮名, 2015).  Hiragana consists of a basic set of characters called gojūon (五十音) which literally means "fifty sounds;" however, only 45 are in common use today (Hiragana, N.D.).   

Katakana (片仮名), which literally means “fragmentary or partial kana,” is also a syllabary that is used to write emphasized words, or words and names from a foreign language (Katakana, N.D.).  The words incorporated from foreign languages are called gairaigo (外来語) which literally means “foreign language or word” (外来語, 2015) and is usually translated as “loan word” or “borrowed word” (Gairaigo, 2015).  A good example is the word ‘cup’ which in rōmaji becomes kappu (カップ).

Rōmaji (ローマ字) which literally means “Roman character” (ローマ字, 2015) is the use of Roman characters, as used in the Latin alphabet, and Roman numerals to write numbers, international units of measurement, acronyms, and initials as well as transliterating Japanese terms into a written English text  (The Japanese writing system, N.D.).  While there are several different Romanization systems in use, the most widely used is the Hepburn system. 

The Hepburn Romanization system, hebon-shiki Rōmaji (ヘボン式ローマ字), is the Romanization system that was named after its inventor, James Curtis Hepburn.  His first Japanese dictionary was published in 1867 with his original Romanization.  His third edition was published in 1886; and, in this edition Hepburn modified his original Romanization based upon recommendations from a system of Romanization created by the "Romanization Club" or Rōmajikwai (羅馬字会).  It is this system that became known as Hepburn Romanization (Bullock, N.D.) which is also known as Traditional Hepburn.

Today we have a system called Modified Hepburn, Shūsei Hebon-shiki (修正ヘボン式), also known as Revised Hepburn, in which the rendering of a syllabic ‘n’ as ‘m’ before certain consonants is no longer used (Hepburn romanization, N.D.).  “This style was introduced in the third edition of Kenkyusha's New Japanese-English Dictionary (1954), adopted by the Library of Congress as one of its ALA-LC romanizations [sic], and is the most common version of the system today” (Hepburn romanization, N.D.).

The Revised Hepburn system of Romanization uses a couple key diacritic marks.  This system uses a macron (a straight bar placed above a letter) over the letters a, i, u, e, and o to indicate a long vowel pronunciation (Japanese, N.D.).  And, this system uses the apostrophe to note the separation of easily confused phonemes (one of the units of sound that distinguish one word from another in a particular language).  For example, the apostrophe is used  between syllables when the first syllable ends with the letter ‘n’ and the following syllable begins with the letter a, i, u, e, o, or y (Japanese, N.D.).

Here is an example of the use of the macron:

Tōkyō –The use of macrons follow the rules of the traditional and modified Hepburn systems.

 

Here is an example of the use of the syllabic ‘n’ in the Traditional Hepburn versus the Revised Hepburn:

In the Traditional Hepburn system, the ‘n‘(ん) is written as ‘n’ before consonants, but as ‘m’ before labial consonants such as b, m, and p.  In addition, ‘n’ is sometimes written as ‘n-‘(with a hyphen) before vowels and the consonant ‘y’ to avoid confusion (Hepburn romanization, N.D.).

In the Modified or Revised Hepburn system, the ‘n‘(ん) is written as ‘n’ before consonants and labial consonants; but it is written ‘n’ with an apostrophe before vowels and the consonant ‘y’ (Hepburn romanization, N.D.).

Bibliography

Bullock, B. (N.D.). What is Hepburn romanization? Retrieved 2015, from sci.lang.japan Frequently Asked Questions: http://www.sljfaq.org/afaq/hepburn.html

Gairaigo. (2015). Retrieved 2015, from Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gairaigo

Hepburn romanization. (N.D.). Retrieved 2015, from Project Gutenberg Self-Publishing Press: http://www.self.gutenberg.org/article/whebn0000036865/hepburn%20romanization

Hiragana. (N.D.). Retrieved 2015, from Wa-pedia: http://www.wa-pedia.com/language/hiragana.shtml

Introduction to Kanji. (N.D.). Retrieved 2015, from Wa-pedia: http://www.wa-pedia.com/language/kanji.shtml

Japanese. (N.D.). Retrieved 2015, from Library of Congress: https://www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/romanization/japanese.pdf

Katakana. (N.D.). Retrieved 2015, from Wa-pedia: http://www.wa-pedia.com/language/katakana.shtml

Okurigana . (N.D.). Retrieved 2015, from Project Gutenberg Self-Publishing Press: http://www.self.gutenberg.org/articles/Okurigana

On-yomi and Kun-yomi. (N.D.). Retrieved 2015, from University of Albany: http://www.albany.edu/eas/205/on-yomi%20and%20kun-yomi.pdf

The Japanese writing system. (N.D.). Retrieved 2015, from Wa-pedia: http://www.wa-pedia.com/language/japanese_writing_system_kanji_hiragana_katakana_romaji.shtml

ローマ字. (2015). Retrieved 2015, from Wiktionary: https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E3%83%AD%E3%83%BC%E3%83%9E%E5%AD%97

外来語. (2015). Retrieved 2015, from Wiktionary: https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A4%96%E6%9D%A5%E8%AA%9E

平仮名. (2015). Retrieved 2015, from Wiktionary: https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B9%B3%E4%BB%AE%E5%90%8D

振り仮名. (2015). Retrieved 2015, from Wiktionary: https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%8C%AF%E3%82%8A%E4%BB%AE%E5%90%8D

訓読み. (2015). Retrieved 2015, from Wiktionary: https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%A8%93%E8%AA%AD%E3%81%BF#Japanese

音読み. (2015). Retrieved 2015, from Wiktionary: https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%9F%B3%E8%AA%AD%E3%81%BF

Japanese Labor Thanksgiving Day

            While Thanksgiving, for the reasons it is celebrated in the United States, is unique to the American culture, other cultures have their own version of Thanksgiving and Japan is no different. In Japan it is called Labor Thanksgiving or Kinrō kansha no hi (勤労感謝の日) and is celebrated on November 23rd.  In Japan, during this holiday, people are encouraged to give thanks for their employment and the prosperity this brings to one’s family (Miller, 2011).  While this holiday was formed in 1948 it has its roots in much older traditions.

            This modern holiday is believed to have its roots in harvest celebrations where people would give thanks for a good harvest.  While many cultures have similar traditions, in ancient Japan “the emperor would make the first offering of the fresh rice harvest” (Morrill, 2009) to the kami (spirts or gods) and then he would eat of the rice himself.   This ritual stems from an ancient practice that is detailed in the book A History of the Japanese People (Capt. F. Brinkley, 1912) where it states:

In the records of the mythological age it is related that Amaterasu obtained seeds of the "five cereals," and, recognizing their value as food, caused them to be cultivated, offering a part to the Kami when they were ripe and eating some herself. This became a yearly custom, and when Ninigi set out to conquer Japan, his grandmother gave rice seed to the ancestors of the Nakatomi and the Imibe families, who thenceforth conducted the harvest festival (nii-name, literally "tasting the new rice") every autumn, the sovereign himself taking part, and the head of the Nakatomi reciting a prayer for the eternity of the Imperial line and the longevity of the Emperor. (chap. 8, para. 10)

            As we can see from the passage above the ancient name for this ritual was Niiname-sai (新嘗祭) which literally means “tasting the new rice” (Capt. F. Brinkley, 1912).  This ritual is mentioned as occurring as far back as November 678 in the Nihon Shoki (The Chronicle of Japan) which itself dates around 720 (Labor Thanksgiving Day, N.D.). This ritual is also known as Shinjo-sai.
            While the foods enjoyed on this holiday in Japan are different than those partaken in the United States and the reasons for the origins of the holidays are different, the spirit of the holidays is very similar in both countries.  In a lot of respects we are really not that different. 

Bibliography

Capt. F. Brinkley, R. A. (1912). A History of the Japanese People. Retrieved 2015, from The Project Gutenberg: http://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/27604/pg27604-images.html

Labor Thanksgiving Day. (N.D.). Retrieved 2015, from Kids Web Japan: http://web-japan.org/kidsweb/explore/calendar/november/labor.html

Miller, A. (2011, November 22). Labor Thanksgiving Day – 勤労感謝の日. Retrieved 2015, from Axiom Magazine: http://www.axiommagazine.jp/2011/11/22/labor-thanksgiving-day-%E5%8B%A4%E5%8A%B4%E6%84%9F%E8%AC%9D%E3%81%AE%E6%97%A5/

Morrill, A. (2009). Google Books. Retrieved 2015, from Thanksgiving and Other Harvest Festivals: https://books.google.com/books?id=3Xde_E7-r50C&pg=PA51&hl=en#v=onepage&q&f=false

Sensei

    In most Japanese-based martial art schools, the instructor is usually referred to as sensei.  The term sensei is a Japanese word that is most often translated as ‘teacher;’ however, there is nothing in the term sensei that suggests teaching.  In fact, a sensei is much more than just a teacher  (Johnson, 2004); and, one does not automatically become a sensei when one becomes a teacher (Johnson, Deshi, 2015).

    The term sensei (先生) is a compound word comprised of two characters.  The first character (先) has the Japanese kun reading of saki or mazu with a meaning of 'before;' and, the Japanese ON pronunciation is sen.  The second character (生) has many Japanese kun readings with the main meanings being ‘life, living, birth, being born, or a raw or primitive state’ (Goldsbury, N.D.); and, the Japanese ON pronunciation is sei.  Therefore, translated literally, sensei means ‘born earlier’ and as such denotes wisdom based on age and experience.  As Lovret (Lovret, Budo Jiten, 1993) states, the term sensei is more correctly “a title of respect for someone who is older and wiser” (p. 98). 

    This helps define what a sensei is, but what really determines what qualifies one to be a sensei?  In order to answer that question we need to look at the traditional standards set forth in Japan. “In the traditional Japanese martial arts, usually the minimum rank necessary to teach is sandan (3^rd degree black belt) with supervision or a yondan (4^th degree black belt) without supervision.  This is because “in most schools, sandan is the rank that separates junior yudansha (black belt) from senior yudansha” (Lovret, The Instructor's Bible, N.D., p. 2).  “This means that 1^st and 2^nd degree black belts are considered junior black belt grades.  And a junior black belt is a student, not a teacher” (Johnson, A Parent's Guide to the Martial Arts, 2004).  

    Unfortunately, most people, and many martial artists, believe that once you earn your black belt you are a qualified teacher.  The confusion lies in the misconception in the West that a black belt is an expert; however, earning a first-degree black belt only means that one has just begun to learn. In Japan, a first-degree black belt is called a shodan, which is translated as ‘first level.’  In a traditional school this indicates about three years of training; and, it is at this time that a person is considered to be a serious student.  Typically, it is at the black belt level that the student will have demonstrated a proficiency in the shoden, or ‘beginning teachings’ (Johnson, A Parent's Guide to the Martial Arts, 2004) and there is much more to learn.

    Basically, you should have an “absolute minimum of ten years of intensive training before you should even attempt to start teaching without supervision” (Lovret, The Instructor's Bible, N.D., p. 4).  And, “since it will take about 12 to 15 years to legitimately earn a yondan, the instructor should be around thirty years of age before attempting to teach.  However, some people mistakenly believe just because they have been training since they could walk, that all the years of training from age 4 to 14 or so, really count.  What these people fail to realize is that maturity of mind and body takes experience and time” (Johnson, A Parent's Guide to the Martial Arts, 2004).  In addition, "being a good fighter or martial arts practitioner does not automatically mean you can be a good teacher. Without a certain degree of experience in all areas of the martial arts, it is difficult to teach" (Kim, 1997, p. 37). 

    So the term sensei means ‘teacher’ but it implies much more.  It implies experience, age, and wisdom; and, all of these attributes are required.  However, these attributes do not even touch on the student-teacher relationship which adds even more depth to the art of instruction.  This is because “a sensei won't just be teaching people, he will be molding them, and his students won't merely be trying to learn what he knows, they will be trying to become exactly like him”  (Johnson, A Parent's Guide to the Martial Arts, 2004).  This is a huge responsibility and goes far beyond what is typically thought of as the responsibilities of a teacher.

Bibliography

Goldsbury, P. (N.D.). Sensei / Shihan as "Teacher" in Japanese. Retrieved September 26, 2015, from Aikiweb: http://www.aikiweb.com/language/goldsbury1.html

Johnson, T. (2004, January 1). A Parent's Guide to the Martial Arts. Retrieved 09 27, 2015, from Kyoshin Dojo: http://www.kyoshindojo.org/articles/parents_guide_to_the_martial_arts.pdf

Johnson, T. (2015, September 26). Deshi. Retrieved September 27, 2015, from Kyoshin Dojo: http://blog.kyoshindojo.org/2015/09/deshi.html

Kim, S. H. (1997). Teaching Martial Arts. Turtle Press.

Lovret, F. (1987). The Way and the Power. Boulder: Paladin Press.

Lovret, F. (1993). Budo Jiten ( 2nd ed ed.). San Diego: Taseki Publishing Company.

Lovret, F. (N.D.). The Instructor's Bible.

Deshi

    I recently read an article where a person claimed that he had recently received the rank of Deshi.  I was mostly confused but a little amused by the use of the Japanese term deshi in this way.  While many people define deshi as student or pupil, and this is not an accurate representation of its true meaning, I have never seen the term used to denote a rank. 

    Deshi (弟子) is a Japanese word that is comprised of two parts.  The first part (弟), ototo, which means younger brother, uses the Chinese-derived pronunciation di, dei, or dai; and, this adds the meaning of ‘pupil’ or ‘disciple.’  The second part (子), ko, which means ‘child’ or ‘offspring,’ uses the Chinese-derived pronunciation zi, ci, or shi; and, the meaning is the same (Goldsbury, N.D.).  When combined into the term deshi, the most appropriate translation is probably disciple.  The term deshi denotes a very close relationship to the instructor similar to that of a familial relationship as if the student has become a part of the dōjō family.  Another term that indicates an even closer relationship is uchi-deshi.  The term uchi (内) literally means ‘inside’ therefore uchi-deshi literally means ‘inside disciple.’  This term typically denotes a student who lives and trains at the dōjō.    

    The relationship that the terms deshi and uchi-deshi indicate are not to be taken lightly by either the student or the instructor.  This type of relationship requires a spiritual commitment on the part of the student and a willingness on the part of the instructor to become a guide through life.  This commitment on the part of the student requires the attitude of nyunanshin which means ‘pliable mind’ and implies a willingness to put away preconceived ideas (Lovret, 1989, p. 171).  This attitude is necessary if the student ever hopes to learn the deeper teachings of his or her chosen art.

    It is important to note that one does not automatically become a deshi or uchi-deshi when one becomes a student, nor does one automatically become a sensei when one becomes a teacher.  There must be a willingness to commit to such a relationship with all of the implications that this relationship entails. Neither term denotes a rank. Rather, a teacher invites a student to become a deshi or uchi-deshi when the teacher thinks the student is serious and worthy; and, the term sensei is a title that the student gives to one’s instructor although the instructor may try to avoid this unless the instructor is willing to entertain the commitment that this implies.  

 

Bibliography

Goldsbury, P. (N.D.). Sensei / Shihan as "Teacher" in Japanese. Retrieved September 26, 2015, from Aikiweb: http://www.aikiweb.com/language/goldsbury1.html

Lovret, F. J. (1989). The Student's Handbook. San Diego: Taseki Publishing Co.